(Part 25)
The Fourth Topic
The Second Speech: Islamic Sects
The Continuation
The movement of Islamic modernism, both in its philosophical layers and social dimensions, has continued in contemporary decades and includes a broad spectrum of modernist thinkers. Among the proponents of this school of thought are ʿAbd al-Rahman Badawi in Egypt, René Habachi in Lebanon, Zaki Naguib Mahfouz, Fathi Osman, and Hassan al-Turabi in Sudan, who advocate a revolutionary yet democratically compatible reinterpretation of Islam. All these figures share a rational outlook on religion or adopt rational interpretations of Islam that align with the needs of modern society. This common rational perspective has led to this movement being referred to as the “New Mu’tazilites.” (ʿAbduh and ʿAbd al-Halim 1408, 135–140)
In contrast to the rationalist Mu‘tazila, the Ash‘ari, Tahawi, and Maturidi theological schools gained broader acceptance. The Ash‘ari school, a prominent Sunni theology, aligned with traditionalist views while using rationalist tools. It aimed to balance extremes—avoiding both the excessive rationalism of the Mu‘tazila and the rigid literalism of hadith traditionalists. Though not the final Sunni doctrine, Ash‘arism marked an early systematization of Sunni theology, later advanced by scholars like al-Baqillani, Imam al-Haramayn al-Juwayni, al-Ghazali, and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi.
Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Tahawi, a contemporary of al-Ash‘ari, defended Sunni beliefs and founded the Tahawi school, based on Hanafi jurisprudence. Abu Hanifa (RA), a predecessor in theological matters, inspired both the Tahawi and Maturidi schools. The Tahawi school is not a new theological system but a continuation of Abu Hanifa’s theological approach.
Another theological branch of Sunni Islam opposing the Mu‘tazila and parallel to the Ash‘ari and Tahawi schools was the Maturidi school. It spread among Hanafi followers in Transoxiana and became more well-known than the Tahawi school. The differences between these Hanafi-based schools and the Ash‘ari (aligned with Shafi‘i jurisprudence) were minor and mostly verbal.
Among the mystical-theological sects was the Karramiyya, sometimes aligned with and at other times opposing the Shafi‘i school. Founded by Muhammad ibn Karram of Zaranj, the Karramiyya gained influence in the courts of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni and Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad of Ghur. However, two factors led to their decline: loss of political patronage and the rise of Ash‘arism. By the early 13th century AH, the Karramiyya sect had completely disappeared. (Saberi 2009, vol. 1, pp. 205–382)
The Fifth Topic: Jurisprudential Differences
Causes of Jurisprudential Differences
Sunni jurists do not have any substantive differences in doctrinal issues and fixed religious principles; their disagreements are mostly verbal. However, in jurisprudential branches where ijtihad (independent reasoning) is permissible, such disagreements are not to be blamed, because the root of such differences lies in ambiguity, vagueness, and contradictions in the texts.
The First Speech: Differences in Understanding
Differences in Human Understanding of the Texts:
One of the causes of divergence in jurisprudential rulings is the difference in understanding religious texts. Just as humans differ in appearance, they also differ in aptitude, nature, and intelligence, which significantly affect their opinions. Individual differences in temperament, preferences, methodologies, and thoughts undoubtedly influence interpretations of religious texts. This is so evident and widely accepted that it hardly needs evidence. The vast range of human intellectual and ideological differences—whether hereditary or environmental—is inevitable, as God in His eternal wisdom has created it. Just as the world of nature is full of variety, so is the human being—reflected even in the uniqueness of fingerprints, thoughts, temperament, and talent. Thus, attempts to unify all human thoughts and methodologies are futile. However, it is possible to reduce these differences or direct them toward proper interpretation and bring them closer together, but complete eradication is impossible.